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this　necessitates　the　selection　and　separation　from　the　rest　of　those　who　have　to　take　the　helm　in

political　affairs；　to　decide；　concerning　them；　and　to　give　orders　to　other　citizens；　with　a　view　to　the

execution　of　their　plans。　If；　e。g。；　even　the　people　in　a　Democracy　resolve　on　a　war；　a　general　must

head　the　army。　It　is　only　by　a　Constitution　that　the　abstraction　…　the　State　…　attains　life　and　reality；

but　this　involves　the　distinction　between　those　who　mand　and　those　who　obey。　…　Yet

obedience　seems　inconsistent　with　liberty；　and　those　who　mand　appear　to　do　the　very

opposite　of　that　which　the　fundamental　idea　of　the　State；　viz。　that　of　Freedom；　requires。　It　is；

however；　urged　that；　…　though　the　distinction　between　manding　and　obeying　is　absolutely

necessary；　because　affairs　could　not　go　on　without　it　…　and　indeed　this　seems　only　a　pulsory

limitation；　external　to　and　even　contravening　freedom　in　the　abstract　…　the　constitution　should　be　at

least　so　framed；　that　the　citizens　may　obey　as　little　as　possible；　and　the　smallest　modicum　of　free

volition　be　left　to　the　mands　of　the　superiors；　…　that　the　substance　of　that　for　which

subordination　is　necessary；　even　in　its　most　important　bearings；　should　be　decided　and　resolved　on

by　the　People　…　by　the　will　of　many　or　of　all　the　citizens；　though　it　is　supposed　to　be　thereby

provided　that　the　State　should　be　possessed　of　vigour　and　strength　as　a　reality　…　an　individual

unity。　…　The　primary　consideration　is；　then；　the　distinction　between　the　governing　and　the　governed；

and　political　constitutions　in　the　abstract　have　been　rightly　divided　into　Monarchy；　Aristocracy；

and　Democracy；　which　gives　occasion；　however；　to　the　remark　that　Monarchy　itself　must　be

further　divided　into　Despotism　and　Monarchy　proper；　that　in　all　the　divisions　to　which　the　leading

Idea　gives　rise；　only　the　generic　character　is　to　be　made　prominent；　…　it　being　not　intended　thereby

that　the　particular　category　under　review　should　be　exhausted　as　a　Form；　Order；　or　Kind　in　its

concrete　development。　But　especially　it　must　be　observed；　that　the　above…mentioned　divisions

admit　of　a　multitude　of　particular　modifications；　…　not　only　such　as　lie　within　the　limits　of　those

classes　themselves；　…　but　also　such　as　are　mixtures　of　several　of　these　essentially　distinct　classes；

and　isshapen；　unstable；　and　inconsistent　forms。　In　such　a　collision；　the

concerning　question　is；　what　is　the　best　constitution；　that　is；　by　what　arrangement；　organisation　or

mechanism　of　the　power　of　the　State　its　object　can　be　most　surely　attained。　This　object　may

indeed　be　variously　understood；　for　instance；　as　the　calm　enjoyment　of　life　on　the　part　of　the

citizens；　or　as　Universal　Happiness。　Such　aims　have　suggested　the　so…called　Ideals　of　Constitution；

and；　…　as　a　particular　branch　of　the　subject；　…　Ideals　of　the　Education　of　Princes　（Fenelon）；　or　of

the　governing　body　…　the　aristocracy　at　large　（Plato）；　for　the　chief　point　they　treat　of　is　the

condition　of　those　subjects　who　stand　at　the　head　of　affairs；　and　in　these　ideals　the　concrete　details

of　political　organisation　are　not　at　all　considered。　The　inquiry　into　the　best　constitution　is　frequently

treated　as　if　not　only　the　theory　were　an　affair　of　subjective　independent　conviction；　but　as　if　the

introduction　of　a　constitution　recognised　as　the　best；　…　or　as　superior　to　others；　…　could　be　the

result　of　a　resolve　adopted　in　this　theoretical　manner；　as　if　the　form　of　a　constitution　were　a　matter

of　free　choice；　determined　by　nothing　else　but　reflection。　Of　this　artless　fashion　was　that

deliberation；　…　not　indeed　of　the　Persian　people；　but　of　the　Persian　grandees；　who　had　conspired

to　overthrow　the　pseudo…Smerdis　and　the　Magi；　after　their　undertaking　had　succeeded；　and　when

there　was　no　scion　of　the　royal　family　living；　…　as　to　what　constitution　they　should　introduce　into

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